Author Archives: Stephanie Matthews

1. Article – Microplastics

   11th March 2020 11:08 am 1 Comment

   Microplastics Dr Stephanie Matthews

   What is it?  

   How many pieces of plastic have you swallowed today? Does it matter?

   Charles Darwin (1809-1882) lived in a world where plastic did not exist. It hadn’t been invented yet. Today, the estimate is that for every man woman and child on the planet, there is more than a ton of plastic. What does a ton of plastic look like? It depends on the density, ranging from feather lite polystyrene to hard PVC. An average ton of plastic would be perhaps 20 black bags of waste. This is the plastic we can see, but what about the plastic we can’t see because it is too small. 

   All plastic originates from crude oil. By a combination of polymerisation and condensation, the carbon molecules in the oil are transformed into different types of plastic. (See table) Plastic never goes away, but it can ‘disappear’ because it gets broken down into smaller and smaller pieces, mainly in the oceans. When it gets to less than 5mm in diameter it is defined as Microplastic, but it is often much smaller than this. For comparison, a grain of rice is about 5mm, a salt crystal is 15 times less than this at 0.3mm. A human hair is about 0.1mm diameter. When does plastic become invisible to the human eye, or a light microscope? These very small pieces are called nanoplastics.

   There are different ways of classifying microplastics. One way is to ask: Were the plastics made to be this way? In this case they are primary microplastic. If the small pieces derive from breakdown of bigger pieces, eg plastic bottles, then they are secondary.

   Primary microplastics include nurdles, Micro-beads and particles made to use in air blasting cleaning. The plastics industry make billions of tiny nurdles  each year which are 1-5mm diameter little lumps of plastic. These are used as the starting point for almost all manufactured plastics, such as bottles and bags. Nurdles hit the headlines in 2017(1) when a shipping container spilt about 2 billion of these into the sea in South Africa. Nurdles now account for a significant amount of beach and ocean plastic pollution.

   Designer Microbeads, developed in the 1980’s are little bits of plastic made specially for the cosmetic industry. These are up to 1mm in diameter and are used in toothpastes, exfoliating soaps and scrubs.

   Secondary microplastic, from the breakup of ‘big’ plastic mainly happens in the oceans under the influence of light, wave motion and oxidation. The bits of plastic get smaller and smaller but they are still plastic and instead of forming a garbage patch, they produce a sort of plastic soup.

   Microplastic fibres don’t fit neatly into either the primary or secondary category. The fibres are deliberately made this size, so are primary, but are then manufactured into clothing, fishing nets and road tyres. Many fibres are released into the environment during this process. But the fibres also come off the finished product, so are secondary. It has been estimated that about 700,000 fibres are released with each washing machine load wash.(2) The worst offenders are thought to be the fleece type materials. (3)

   But primary or secondary, does it matter? Microplastic is everywhere: In the sea, rivers, the air, dust, in our food, and the  global microplastic load is increasing daily, and it is ‘invisible’ to us but tasty delicacies for marine and freshwater animals.(4, 5)

   Biodegradable plastic – a new dangerous source of microplastic

   Crude oil, as seen after oil spills at sea, will biodegrade. Unfortunately, once the oil has been turned into plastics, and purposely designed to be indestructible, biological systems don’t recognise them, they won’t biodegrade and can’t be digested.

   If that is the case, why is some plastic called ‘biodegradable’? Other confusing terms are eco plastic, natural synthetic, recyclable,  renewable,  sustainable, natural plastic, and oxo-biodegradable, disposable, renewable degradable, compostable. Stop! 

   These jargon terms are springing up in clever marketing departments to sell products without recourse to accurate definition. Some claims are true but are being swamped in the mire of confusion. 

   If a substance biodegrades, it’s not plastic. In fact, it may turn out to be worse than obvious plastic as it could make people lazy about usage and disposal. It will also be a source of microplastic, or in this case even smaller pieces –  nano plastics.

   The misnamed ‘Biodegradable plastic’ is made up of the synthetic plastic polymers and starch like polymers. In the right conditions, the starch like parts will decompose leaving the plastic bits which are are synthetic polymers, styrene monomer, dimer and trimer, and these end up in the oceans.(7)

   If a substance does genuinely fully biodegrade, make up another word. Plasti-gone? Ecoplast? Plastaway? But don’t call it plastic. And specify the conditions under which it will biodegrade. (8)

   So have you eaten any microplastic today?

   It is highly likely that the answer is yes. A study, (9) albeit quite a small study, found microplastic in the poo of everyone tested, on average about 1,000 bits of plastic a day. The study is very small and needs to be repeated but throws up many questions. Where did the plastics come from? Was the plastic in the food, packaging or was it airborne and land on the food before it was eaten? Do the plastics stay in the gut and just get pushed out again in the poo? Do they escape from the gut into the blood stream or lymphatic system and get to other organs? Do they cause any damage? Can plastic be inhaled?

   Microplastics have been found in bottled water, beer , table salt and seafood (10, 11). In the bottled water, 93% of the bottles contained particles at a concentration of about 10 particles per litre which were around 0.1mm diameter, but about 350 particles per litre which were much smaller. Some bottles contained 10,000 particles. The International Bottled Water Association took issue with the findings, saying they were not peer-reviewed and not based on sound science. 

   In studies on animals, the highest concentrations of microplastics were found in the stomach and intestines, but smaller amounts have also been detected in blood, lymph and the liver.

   If you have eaten any microplastic, can it harm you?

   The answer simple – it is not known. But it is very important to find out, and as soon as possible. 

   There are three main possible ways that the microplastic could harm humans directly.  The first is that the tiny particles and fibres, sometimes five times thinner than a human hair, could get to places they shouldn’t be after ingestion or inhalation. If they get into the blood stream or the lung, they could then lodge in other organs and cause reactions like inflammation, or disrupt the immune system. 

   The second way microplastics can harm is due to the baggage they are carrying. Microplastics are not the only manmade things floating around in the water. There are also organic chemicals which were made as pesticides, herbicides, dyes, and many other uses. These  organic molecules also persist in the environment, typically up to 20 years, and have been given the name ‘POPS” or Persistent Organic Pollutants. Because of the chemistry of microplastics, the POPS get absorbed into, and stick onto, the microplastics. The smaller the plastic particle, relatively the more POP it can hold. The POPS are toxic, after all, many were invented to kill insects and plants. The result is that the plastics attract the other polluting chemicals to them, acting like sponges, thus concentrating the toxic chemicals before they are eaten by the marine animals. By sticking to microplastics, the POPS can reach a million times more concentrated than in the surrounding water. Potentially hazardous chemicals, used in the manufacture the plastic can also leach out of the microplastic.

   Additives to plastics

   • Bisphenol A, Makes plastic clear and tough,
   • polybrominateddiphenyl ethers, heat resistance
   • Nonylphenol, Provides resistance to heat, Reduces oxidative damage 
   • Triclosan, Inhibits microbial degradation, 
   • phthalates, softens

   List of POPS  

   DDT, 

   Chlordane, 

   fluorinated substances like perfluoroalkylates, 

   HCH or hexachlorocyclohexane, 

   PCB’s or Polychorinated biphenyls

   A third way that microplastic can be directly dangerous is because bacteria, known to be harmful to humans, eg Vibrio, which can cause severe gastroenteritis and septicaemia, hitch a ride on microplastic particles in the oceans. (12) Vibrio infections are most often associated with eating raw shellfish and ingestion of the contaminated microplastics can lead to infection in the person eating the shellfish. 

   We don’t know if microplastics directly harm humans,  and we can’t ask humans to eat microplastics because it would not be ethical, so it is a difficult subject to study. There is evidence however that microplastics and their hitch hikers can harm animals. 

   Experiments show that microplastics damage marine animals as well as turtles and birds. They can block digestive tracts, diminish the urge to eat, and alter feeding behaviour, all of which reduce growth and reproductive output. The fish that had ingested the treated plastic suffered liver damage and were less able to cope with drugs, pesticides, and other pollutants. In birds, the ingestion of plastic has been found to affect the villi lining the gut and disrupt iron absorption. Oysters exposed to tiny pieces of polystyrene—the stuff of take-out food containers—produce fewer eggs and less motile sperm.

   The styrene monomers and polymers from the misnamed ‘biodegradable’ plastic are not found in naturally in Nature, and disturbingly, there is a possibility that some have been shown to cause cancer, and have been found in seawater around the world at up to 150 parts per million. 

   The chemicals associated with the microplastics, such as  the persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS) and  Bisphenol A, are known to affect hormones. There are disturbing links to low sperm count, miscarriage, heart disease and diabetes and breast cancer. (ref 14)

   A particular worry is the research that showed the tiny fibres crossed into the brain in fish and caused reduced feeding and premature death. (ref 15)

   What can be done?  

   Consumer power

   • Become knowledgable, and in appropriate ways, lobby governments and businesses.  A lot has already been achieved due to culture change and the power of the consumer. For example, supermarket plastic bags usage is much reduced, banned in some places, Glastonbury Festival has banned single use plastic bottles, and Comic Relief has removed the Red Nose Day balloons from their fundraising pack. 

   • Support the charities that are cleaning up the beaches and oceans and raising awareness.

   • Help change the fast clothes, wear once, culture that is damaging to the environment. Reduce the need for so many clothes, wear them more often and repair them when damaged. In this way the polluting effect of plastic fibres from clothing will be reduced. Support manufacturers that take recycling and pollution issues seriously, (ref Patagonia)

   • Governments are beginning to come on board. The manufacture and sale of products containing micro beads have been banned in many countries, and bans on plastic straws, drink stirrers and cotton buds are under discussion. 

   • Businesses, policy makers, and investors too, need to make clear commitments. Big business will only come on board if it is economically viable for them to do so, unless pressurised by consumers. They will also have to respond to government legislation. An interesting initiative is the ‘The New Plastics Economy.’ (ref). This has three ambitions: create an effective after-use plastics economy; drastically reduce leakage of plastics into natural systems and other negative effects; decouple plastics from fossil resources. Most plastic packaging is used only once, with 95% of the value of plastic packaging material, worth US$ 80-120 billion annually, being lost to the economy. This makes economic sense to change. 

   • But very urgently, we need our scientists to come up with different materials that will not clog the oceans and produce microplastics. The clothing industry also needs to respond and research fabrics with less dependence on plastics and less fibre release. In the packaging industry, several products have now been made that look like plastic, act like plastic, but are made from sugar or corn, cassava and bagasse ( dry fibre residue from sugar cane) and carbon dioxide. The crucial difference is that they can be degraded back into carbon dioxide and sugar by bacteria in soil. These substances have great potential. (16)

   • Incentives for business are coming in the form of Innovation Prizes (17)) and grants to help develop the materials of the future, and make our current systems more eco-efficient. Scientists and entrepreneurs need to work together.  

   The plastic we can see, and the plastic that is ‘invisible’  is having major impacts on our health and food security. Already individuals and governments are taking action. Defeatist critics are saying such actions are too late and inadequate to deal with a problem that has reached epic proportions. 

   It’s time to prove the critics wrong.

   Reference list

   1. “Nurdles KZN, SA. Project Duration: Long Term”. Coast KZN. 2019

   2. Release of synthetic microplastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing. Napper I.E. and Thompson R.C. Marine Pollution Bulletin vol 112, Nov 2016, pp 39-45

   3. Micropollution from textiles: A literature review. Henry B. Et al. SIFO Project report no. 1-2018

   4. Microplastic ingestion by riverine macroinvertebrates. Windsor F.M. et al Science of the total environment. Vol 646, 2019, pp 68-74.  doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.271

   5. Plastic microfibre ingestion by deep-sea organisms    M. L. Taylor et al ,   ScientificReports6,  Articlenumber:33997(2016) 

   6. Link to page on TYD site

   7.  A systematic review of epidemiologic studies of styrene and cancer (2018)

   James J. Collins & Elizabeth Delzell   https://doi.org/10.1080/10408444.2018.1445700 

   8. how things biodegrade

   9.  Duncombe, J. (2018), Microplastics found in human stool, Eos, 99, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EO108373.

   10. Kosuth, M., S. A. Mason, and E. V. Wattenberg (2018). Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt. PLOS One, 

   11. Liebezeit G. and E. Liebezeit (2014) Synthetic particles as contaminants in German beers. Food Additives & Contaminants, 31, 1574-157

   12.  Dangerous hitchhikers? Evidence for potentially pathogenic Vibrio spp. on microplastic particles. Inga V. Kirstein et al, Marine Environmental Research, 2016,   http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.07.004 

   13. Damstra, T. (2002). Potential Effects of Certain Persistent Organic Pollutants and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals on Health of Children. Clinical Toxicology. 40(4), 457–465.

   14. Vandenberg L.N. et al (2012) Hormones and endocrine disrupting chemicals: low dose effects and non monotonic dose responses. Endocrine Reviews 33(3): 378-455

   SOURCES, FATE AND EFFECTS OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT: PART TWO OF A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT  A report to inform the Second United Nations Environment Assembly  GESAMP Working Group 40 2nd phase ISSN: 1020-4873 

   Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review

   15. Brain damage and behavioural disorders in fish induced by plastic nanoparticles delivered through the food chain. Mattsson K. Et al. Scientific Reports, 2017; 7 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10813-0

   16. This bag is 100% biodegradable. Alex Gray, 4th May, World Economic Forum.

   17. https://newplasticseconomy.org/projects/innovation-prize

2. Science News – Issue 2

   9th March 2020 4:16 pm Leave a Comment

   Genetic engineering revolutionizes the treatment of macular degeneration in the eye. Fig. 3 of the eye

   Macular degeneration is the most common cause of blindness in developed countries. Some 300,000 cases are diagnoses every year in the UK. The condition is caused when a key protein at the back of the eye that protects the retina goes wrong Researches in Oxford, led by Professor ?, have developed an extraordinary way of treating this condition. They have engineered a healthy protein into a safe virus, injected this DNA into the back of the eye, so that the virus infects cells there, which make the corrected protein. Brilliant.

   Read more at:

   Great Barrier Reef under attack

   https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

   File:COTS_held_out_of_water.jpg

   The Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia is one of the wonders of the world. But it is under attack! Not only by humans this time, but also by the crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci. The Australian Institute of Marine Science has carried out surveys, and found that there has been a 50% loss of coral between 1985 and 2012. Half caused by the starfish. Yes warmer water, human development and pollution have also caused damage. But these starfish actually eat the polyps of the coral, killing it. Amazingly the Australian government are investing £35 million to protect the reef from all of this attack. £5.7 million of this will be used to cull the starfish where divers will inject bile into hundreds of thousands of them. Quite a challenge.

   Read more at:

   http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/22/australia-launches-mass-cull-coral-eating-starfish-save-great/

   http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-42769874

   http://www.environment.gov.au/marine/gbr/case-studies/crown-of-thorns

   see this fantastic video – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ardrFZuFkU

   ‘W’ to the rescue in bacterial attack

   Colitis is a painful debilitating condition where the bowel becomes inflamed. One of the reasons for this is the overgrowth of some bacteria like E. Coli, which live in the gut without causing problems, until there are too many of them. Using antibiotics to kill them off sometimes works, but is a blunt weapon. The antibiotics kill many types of bacteria, some of which are the good guys, leaving the nasty ones to grow unopposed, and the delicate ecosystem of the colon is upset.

   Scientists in Texas and California have used a property of the bad guys that is they respire in the very low oxygen environment using a Molybdenum dependent cofactor. To kill them off, the Molybdenum has been swopped with Tungsten, or ‘W’, and then the bugs can’t respire. This is very elegant. There is a possibility of an oral medicine which will reduce inflammation in the colon, by selectively and precisely hitting the bad bacteria. Furthermore it doesn’t affect the rest of the gut flora when there is no inflammation, leaving the good bacteria alone. Although the work has been done in mice, there is evidence it will work in humans. This is very important and exciting work but don’t try it as tungsten is very toxic so much more research is required before it is safe for humans.

   Read more at

   Precision editing of the gut microbiota ameliorates colitis. Zhu W., et al. Nature  553 (11th Jan) 2018 pp208-211

   Bubbles: An exciting new way to look inside the gut.

   The deep ocean, Saturn’s surface: inhospitable places very difficult to study. But what about closer to home? The core of our own large bowel is a very inhospitable, anaerobic place and difficult to study, especially in real time. There are many more microbial cells in the bowel than all the cells in the rest of the body. They are not randomly scattered but act as an ecosystem with constant battles for supremacy within their realm. Scientists at the California Institute of Technology have used ultrasound to detect microbes deep with in gut. The cells have been genetically engineered to express ‘acoustic reporter genes’. The bacteria make gas filled vesicles, bubbles, which can be detected by ultrasound. This is an exciting potential new way to study gut diseases and also to target tumours. A clever idea indeed.

   Read more at :

   Acoustic reporter genes for noninvasive imaging of microorganisms in mammalian hosts. Bourdeau R W,  Lee-Gosselin A et al. Nature 553, 86–90 (04 January 2018) doi:10.1038/nature25021

   Genetic engineering of firefly gene enables single cancer cells to be seen in a live animal. Fig. 4

   Bioluminescence is the emission of light from living organisms1,2. The genes that code from their light emitting proteins have revolutionised clinical diagnosis and biomedical research, and amazingly have created several billion dollar markets. The firefly luciferase gene can be used to light up cancer cells in live animals. A drug that kills the cancer cells then causes the light to go out. A famous Japanese group have used genetic engineering to markedly improve the use of cancer cells expressing firefly luciferase in whole animals for drug discovery. They used an ingenious combination of a chemically modified luciferin and a genetically selected luciferase, which clearly results in a large increase in light emission, when used in live animals. They claim they can now detect single cells in a live mouse. The apparent higher expression of genetically engineered bioluminescent proteins may be caused by an increase in half life of the protein, rather than higher synthesis3-5. This half-life can be as short as 20 minutes in cells. Luciferases and jellyfish photoproteins, such as those from the marine species Gaussia, Aequorea and Obelia, use coelenterazine as the luciferin1,2,6. This produces blue light, and is more sensitively detected by an intensified CCD camera, than the yellow or red emission from firefly luciferase1,2. The EM- CCD camera used by these authors is likely to be red sensitive. This is an important point. A further issue is the quantum yield, the fraction of luciferin molecules producing a photon. Natural firefly luciferase has a very high quantum yield, typically 80-100%1. The combination of a genetically engineered luciferase and modified luciferin may have reduced this. In coelenterazine systems this is typically <20%. The high quality work reported here will lead to further application of bioluminescence in whole animals, where it is superior to fluorescence.

   Campbell,AK. (1988). Chemiluminescence: principles and applications in biology and medicine, pp608. Horwood/VCH, Chichester and Weinheim.

   Campbell AK (2017). Fundamentals of intracellular calcium, pp 428, Wiley, Chichester.

   Badminton, M, Kendall, JM, Sala-Newby, G and Campbell AK (1995). Differences in stability of recombinant apoaequorin within subcellular compartments. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 217:950-957.

   Jeffery, J. Kendall, J.M. and Campbell, A.K. (2000). Apoaequorin monitors degradation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) proteins initiated by loss of ER Ca2+. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 268,711-715.

   Baubet,V, Le Mouellic, H, Campbell, AK, Lucas-Meunier, E, Fossier, P and Brulet, P (2000). Chimeric GFP-aequorin as bioluminescent Ca2+ reporters at the single cell level. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.97:7260-7265.

   Campbell,AK and Herring,PJ. (1990) Marine Biology 104:219-225. Imidazolopyrazine bioluminescence in copepods and other marine animals.

   Read more at:

   Iwano et al, Science 359, 935-939 (2018). Single –cell bioluminescence imaging of deep tissue in freely moving animals.

   Space Travel – time to dream again

   A cherry red Tesla Roadster with a dummy at the wheel, and the sound system playing Bowie’s ‘Space Oddity’, went into space this month. It was launched by the Falcon Heavy rocket, the brainchild of Elon Musk, a visionary genius. Musk set up SpaceX a private company, in 2002 to open up space travel. He had many doubters. But it’s not just the technical wizardry that is so important here. He has given a new generation inspiration, excitement and a chance to dream again about Space travel. Pity about the car though. The dummy hopefully enjoyed the ride.

   Stop press: Monkeys cloned – Fig.5

   Two baby macaque monkeys, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, have been born in Shanghai, China. The crazy thing is that they are truly identical, made from cloning using SCNT, Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned and this has now been achieved in 23 mammalian species. But this is the first time in a primate. The researchers argue that monkeys are needed to study human disease mechanisms, genetic defects and potential therapeutic treatments. The technology used to achieve these live births is very clever but the regulation of use of the technology and the ethics will no doubt be debated long and hard.

   Read more at:

   Cloning of Macaque Monkeys by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer     Cell Volume 172, Issue 4, p881–887.e7, 8 February 2018 Z Liu, Y Cai, et al. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.020

   Clever Clostridium, naïve nutritionists: Another sorry sugar tale

   In 2000/2001 a sugar, trehalose was granted safe status in the USA and Europe, and because technological advances made it cheap to make, was added to many foods. Shortly after this, epidemics of serious severe diarrhoea started, caused by the pathogen, Clostridium difficile. Trehalose is a disaccharide that is made of two sugar units, in this case, two glucoses. Surely this cannot cause problems?

   Take a clue from nature. The human body evolved coping well with mainly sucrose (glucose and fructose) maltose (glucose and glucose) and babies are very good at metabolising lactose (galactose and glucose). The way the two sugar units link together and the sterioisomerism of the molecules is vital. In the right place, trehalose is an amazing disaccharide that is used by bees for rapid energy and by plants to withstand dehydration, but the human gut has not been exposed to much of it. Two strains of Clostridium difficle have evolved to flourish in very low levels of trehalose. The arguments made by the researchers from the USA, Netherlands and UK are compelling. The moral? Why change the sugars we eat. They are not benign molecules to be messed with.

   Read more at:

   Dietary trehalose enhances virulence of epidemic Clostridium difficile. Collins C. Robinson et al   Nature volume 553, pages 291–294

   Reversal of the Earth’s magnetic field – Is this a doomsday scenario?

   Everyone who uses a compass knows that the Earth has a magnetic field around it produced by the molten metal at the core of our planet. The compact needle points towards magnetic North, which is different from geographic North. Scientists have discovered that, every hundred thousand years or so, the filed turns upside down. In other words, it reverses. Recent data from satellites obtained by the European Space Agency (ESA) has shown that the next reversal has already started. Some have argued that a complete reversal could be catastrophic, and allow a lethal stream of particles from the sun, and cosmic rays. But NASA says we do not need to worry as the fossil record from times when this occurred before shows that life carried on as normal.

   Read more at:

   https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/5478266/earth-magnetic-field-poles-flip-mass-extinction/

   http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/education/reversals.html

   https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/01/earth-magnetic-field-flip-north-south-poles-science/

   http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5351589/Earths-magnetic-field-flip-upside-down.html

   Energy Utopia – Fusion Power

   Is it possible to have pollution free, sustainable energy in unlimited quantities? There may be interesting geo-ethical consequences to this hypothetical situation but surely it is a goal worth pursuing. The potential answer is ‘Fusion Power’. Copying the sun, fusion between hydrogen elements to make helium releases massive amounts of energy. A key advance toward this goal was the invention of a new superconducting material; steel tape coated with a compound called yttrium-barium-copper oxide (YBCO). The energy is produced at extremely hot temperatures and magnetic fields will be used to contain the hot plasma. The technology builds on research at MIT but with large international collaboration, in particular ITER, a group currently building a facility in southern France.

   Fusion energy is now potentially in reach. This could mean an unlimited carbon –free energy future. A big step forward is a collaboration between MIT in Cambridge MA and a new private company, Commonwealth Fusion Systems. The researchers predict the new magnets will be available within 3 years and production will happen within 15 years. ITER plan to begin producing fusion energy around 2035.

   If MIT are involved, then it will probably happen.

   Lassa fever in Nigeria, Good and bad news

   The bad news is that Nigeria is suffering its worst outbreak of Lassa fever. Tragically, since the beginning of the year, the disease has killed over a hundred people, including brave healthcare workers. Lassa fever is caused by a virus of the Arenaviridae family. Many infected people get no symptoms but at the other end of the spectrum, like Ebola, symptoms include fever and bleeding from the mouth and GI tract. The death rate is about 25% of those detected.

   But there is some good news. The public health reforms put in place since the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa are working at full steam. Without them, the crisis would have been significantly worse.

   The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has become stronger, faster, and is better equipped. There are many more well trained staff who have access to sophisticated data-management tools which runs on smartphones, a great improvement on the previous pen and paper method. There are now four labs in Nigeria that can test for Lassa virus, cutting the diagnostic wait from four days to 24 hours.

   There is human to human transfer of the virus but the reservoir of infection is in the rat. It is not known for certain yet why this outbreak is moving so fast. Researchers believe it is not the virus that is changing but the transmission from the rats. This view is supported as other rat borne diseases, e.g. monkey pox, are also increasing. It is also possible that the detection rate is dramatically improving due to education and the activities of the NCDC.

   Read more at

   Nigeria hit by unprecedented Lassa fever outbreak   Leslie Roberts et al. Science 16 Mar 2018: Vol. 359, Issue 6381, pp. 1201-1202 DOI: 10.1126/science.359.6381.1201

3. Article – The foundation of Sweden’s first learned society, The Royal Society of Uppsala. Eric Gylfe

   4:13 pm Leave a Comment

   Erik Gylfe, Emeritus Professor of Secretion Research, Uppsala University.

   Former President of the Royal Society of Sciences at Uppsala

   Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 571, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.

   E-mail: erik.gylfe@mcb.uu.se

   Erik is an expert in insulin and glucagon secretion, and has spent most of his career discovering the mechanisms by which these hormones are secreted by from the islets of Langerhans to regulate blood glucose.

   The importance of Scientific Academies

   Scientific academies have played major roles in the development of science. Plato’s Academia outside Athens was the starting point around 387 BC. However, it was not until the seventeenth century, when scientific thinking based on observations and experiments gradually became dominating, that scientific academies were founded in many countries, like Germany 1652, England 1660, and France 1666.

   Figure 24. Eric Benzelius (1675-1743) the Younger, Founder of the Royal Society of Sciences. Painting by Johan Henrik Scheffel (1690-1781)

   Founding of Royal Society of Sciences at Uppsala 

   The first Swedish academy, the Royal Society of Sciences at Uppsala, was founded in 1710, 29 years before the now internationally better-known Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. A key-person in the creation the Uppsala academy was Erik Benzelius the Younger (1675-1743) (Figure 1). He was the son of Archbishop Erik Benzelius the Elder in Uppsala, Sweden. Like a number of other young men (in those days it was essentially only men) of the upper classes, the younger Benzelius made an educational journey abroad, in order to learn manners, to meet influential people, and to hear about current thinking. At the age of 22, supported by a Royal scholarship, he began, in 1697, a three-year European tour, during which he became acquainted with a number of influential philosophers and scientists. The most well-known was the great mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, who, independently of Isaac Newton, had developed differential and integral calculus. In a letter to Professor Olof Rudbeck the Younger in Uppsala, Benzelius describes his meeting with Leibnitz in the following way: ‘Not with one man but with several I felt that I was conversing, so great and so wide-ranging is his wealth of knowledge; there was nothing that I wanted to know that he was not able to tell me’. Benzelius was apparently also appreciated by Leibnitz since he wrote to one of Benzelius’ Swedish benefactors ‘You have done me a special favour in referring the young Mr. Benzelius to me, a man who is truly in my taste. For he not only burns to learn something and to use his time well but also possesses great actual knowledge and furthermore such a noble and charming manner that he will always win the hearts of everyone wherever he may be. In other words, I have no doubt that he will one day be a new adornment to his country and his family’.

   Figure 25. Seal of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala

   Back in Uppsala the young theologian Erik Benzelius, with broad interests in science, was appointed University Librarian in 1702. He apparently became aware of the importance of scientific societies during his visit to Leibniz, who at the time was busy with the creation of a Prussian Academy. But Benzelius also visited l’Académie des Science in Paris and the Royal Society in London. He was also inspired by letters from his brother-in-law, the polymath Emanuel Swedberg (ennobled Swedenborg), who was studying Isaac Newton’s works in London. However, the igniting spark for Benzelius to create a Swedish scientific society seems to be a letter from the inventor, engineer and mechanical genius Christopher Polhammar (the ’Swedish Archimedes’ ennobled Polhem), who also suggested a name Collegium curiosorum (Association for the curious).

   Early eighteenth century

   The early eighteenth century was a turbulent time, when Sweden tried to defend its position as one of Europe´s great powers. The country was more or less constant in wars during the years 1700-1719, and the number of casualties in warfare has been estimated to be 200 000, or more than 20 percent of the male population. In a huge fire in 1702, almost the entire Uppsala burned down. And the next few years were characterized by poverty and famine. The Swedish empire was on retreat, after losing the battle at Poltava in current Ukraine in 1709, followed by the exile of the Swedish King Charles XII in Turkey. This period did not seem to be optimal for creating a Swedish scientific society. Unexpectedly, however, another disaster helped Erik Benzelius in this respect. In the late autumn of 1710 bubonic plague raged in nearby Stockholm, making its way towards Uppsala. When cases were reported as close as 10 kilometers from Uppsala city, the University Board took a decision to close the university and send its students home. As the teachers were out of students, Benzelius took the opportunity in November to assemble a handful of prominent teachers in the University Library, a stone building that had escaped the fire. They founded the Collegium curiosorum, with the purpose of meeting regularly, corresponding with colleagues in other countries, gathering information about curious phenomena, and trying to elucidate their causes. They also decided to collect and to systematize natural specimens, as well as spreading knowledge in astronomy, physics and engineering, that might be of general benefit. However, due to the general economic misery, the activity of the association was soon weak or absent for some years.

   After the King´s return to Sweden, in 1716 Collegium curiosorum tried to get his support to build an astronomical observatory. This was not approved, due to the poor economy, and preparations for a new war against Denmark. However, the King was very interested in Polhem’s technical achievements in mining, to some extent assisted by Swedenborg. Both were members of Collegium curiosorum, although corresponding ones, since most of the time they were not present in Uppsala. Encouraged by the King, Polhem and Swedenborg wrote articles about technical achievements in six issues of Sweden’s first scientific journal; Dædalus Hyperboreus – published in Uppsala in 1716-1718. Since the purpose was to spread the important information widely, the language was Swedish, rather than Latin, the dominating scientific language at the time. 

   After the warrior King Charles XII had fallen in the battle at Fredrikshald, in Norway in 1718, and after a Russian attack in 1719 had been averted, Sweden’s constitution was changed from a Royal autocracy to a parliamentary rule, the Age of Liberty, when science started to thrive. In 1719, Benzelius together with some founders of Collegium curiosorum and new members, decided to revive the society, which was then named Bokwettsgillet (the Guild of Book Learning) or Societas Literaria. This society was very active, with 30-40 meetings per year, dealing with a wide range of subjects. Among the more curious ones was a report in 1722 that a werewolf (Lycanthropos) had been seen in Western Sweden. However, this was denied six months later, and explained by the source being a fool, ‘who said and made whatever people told him’.

   Benzelius worked intensely to get economic support and Royal protection. In response to his application, Parliament gave permission to dig up and sell the iron pipes that had supplied Uppsala’s castle with water, but were no longer in use. This provided capital, Parliament also granting free postage for domestic and international mail correspondence. In 1728, a Royal protection was finally granted under the name Societas Regia Litteraria et Scientiarum, which is now Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten (the Royal Society of Sciences). In the transition, Anders Celsius played an important role. Elected fellow of the Guild of Book Learning in 1724 at the age of only 23, he soon took over the important secretary position, which he held until his death in 1744. Today Celsius’ name is mostly associated with the temperature scale, which he proposed in a paper to the Royal Society of Sciences. However, interestingly his original scale had 100° as the freezing point of water, and 0° as its boiling point!

   The founder of modern biology – Carl Linnaeus

   Sweden’s most famous scientist in all categories, the organizer of flowers and animals, and inventor of the binomial nomenclature for naming species (Systema Naturae), was Carl Linnaeus (ennobled von Linné). He was intimately related to the early history of the Royal Society of Sciences.  Linnaeus was born in 1707 and came to Uppsala in 1728 to study botany and medicine. In 1729 he wrote an article about the sexual reproduction of plants that attracted the attention of two prominent members of the Royal Society of Sciences, Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Olof Celsius the Elder (the uncle of Anders), and in 1732 the Royal Society of Sciences used most of its economic resources to approve Linnaeus’ application for support of an expedition to Lapland in the north of Sweden. The expedition was a great success and was followed by others, and Linnaeus became member of the Royal Society of Sciences in 1739 and succeeded Anders Celsius as secretary, a position Linnaeus held for 23 years. One of Linnaeus early measures as secretary was to reverse the Celsius’ temperature scale to its current form with higher temperatures indicated by higher numbers.

   An important expedition in 1735

   Another important event in the history of the Society of Sciences is related to the decision in 1735 by the French King, that l’Académie des sciences in Paris to send out two Arc-of-Meridian expeditions to clarify the correctness of Newton’s proposal regarding the flattening of the earth at the poles. One expedition was sent to Peru and another to the Arctic Circle. Visiting Paris Anders Celsius advocated that the second expedition should go to northernmost Sweden and in this way Celsius himself and the Royal Society of Sciences became involved in confirming Newton’s hypothesis.

   The Future

   After 308 years the Royal Society of Sciences is still going strong. Many things have changed during three centuries. One is the gender aspect. It actually took 271 years until the first female member was elected in 1981 and it will yet take some time to reach gender equality although the balance among current new members is fairly equal. Today the Royal Society of Sciences have eight regular meeting per year, when members representing most academic fields, including the humanities, gather for discussions and listen to lectures about virtually any subject. These meetings also decide about new members, and a number of awards, prizes and medals, to successful scientists at different stages of their careers. Every meeting ends with an enjoyable dinner buffet, and continued lively discussions. Each year there is also a ‘Day of the Society’, when members of the general public are invited to attend an award ceremony, and listen to lectures by the laureates. Through activities such as these, the present members of the Royal Society of Sciences at Uppsala continue the work of their early frontrunners Erik Benzelius, Anders Celsius and Carl von Linné. In 2010, The Society held its 300th anniversary in Uppsala1, when Foreign members were invited to a scientific meeting, and a white tie dinner with the Crown Princess of Sweden. The Society looks forward to the next 300 years.

   Acknowledgements

   Valuable feedback from the former Royal Society of Sciences Presidents Professors Ulf Göransson and Lars Engwall is gratefully acknowledged.

   Bibliography

   1. Lars Engwall (2011). Scholars in Action – Past–Present–Future. ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS. Nova Acta Regiæ Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis

   Ser. V: Volumen extra ordinem editum. Xx, Sweden.
   

4. Article – The Darwin Experience Marten Lewis

   1:48 pm Leave a Comment

   

   The Darwin Centre, Pembrokeshire College, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire

   Email: Darwin@darwincentre.com

   Key words: Darwin, Natural History, Education, STEM, Darwin Centre

   Curiosity inspires, Discovery reveals

   Synopsis

   This article describes an education initiative, now based in Pembrokeshire, which has inspired thousands of school and College students, teachers, and members of the public, about cutting edge science and nature. The Darwin Centre is embedded in the education programme of Pembrokeshire, carrying out activities with all the schools there, and has had a major impact on student choices in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) at University, and as a career. It is a model of how to develop and fund such initiatives outside the system that work with the system.

   Origins

   The Darwin Centre for Biology and Medicine (Darwin Centre) is a registered charity in the UK (No.1038170). It was original established in Penarth, in 1994, by Professor Anthony K Campbell, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, (now in the School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences), under the Chairmanship of Alec Webster, Chair of British Gas Wales, to provide a bridge between the University sector, schools and the public. The charity initially combined a research and public engagement in Biology and Medicine platform. During the 1990’s The Darwin Centre supported school student projects through the national CREST scheme, held public lectures, glowworm hunts, and scientific meetings between schools and the University. Carrying out international class research, The Darwin Centre delivered expert led lectures and workshops, intended to build relations and understanding between researchers and the public. In 1999 Professor Campbell and his wife Dr Stephanie Matthews, relocated the Darwin Centre to their property, the Welston Court Science Centre, Milton, Pembrokeshire (Figure 1). After obtaining a grant from the Millennium Festival Fund, the first Pembrokeshire Darwin Science Festival was held throughout 2000, with public lectures, field trips, the Great Millennium Glowworm Hunt, debates on genetic engineering and evolution and religion, and a concert, bringing science and music together. This enabled The Darwin Centre to develop into a broader Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) engagement charity with the annual festival for schools and communities running alongside the research and engagement output. Between 2001 and 2005, The Darwin Centre was hosted by Pembrokeshire Business Initiative (PBI), and subsequently by Pembrokeshire College (its current headquarters). During this time the Darwin Centre successfully developed small scale schools Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) programmes, with funding from such bodies as Barclays Bank, COPUS, Welsh Government, and the National Park Authority. A Research Laboratory is currently operated in partnership with Milford Haven Port Authority at Milford Haven Docks. For more detail on the Research and Engagement programme please see www.darwincentre.com  

   

   Figure 17 Invertebrate diversity in the Welston pond

   The Darwin Experience 

   With over a decade’s experience, a new education programme within the Darwin Centre – The Darwin Experience – was developed by Marten Lewis FRSA, in 2005. A proposal for which was submitted to the Milford Haven based Natural Gas Importing/regasification company, Dragon LNG, for consideration under its Corporate Social Responsibility community fund. The successful bid has yielded 13 years of continuous funding to date, forming over 85% of the total output of the Darwin Centre’s education programme. Pembrokeshire County Council contribute around 10% of the costs, directly supporting the remuneration of the Project Officer, which enables the project to offer all schools in Pembrokeshire free access to the activities. Other funds from local grant providers include the Bluestone Foundation and the Sustainable Development Fund. Two fulltime members of staff, the Darwin Centre’s Executive Director, Marten Lewis FRSA, and the Project Officer, Samantha Williams, develop and deliver the Dragon LNG Darwin Experience (Figures 2 and 3). Support from local STEM experts, who co-deliver around 10% of the output is paid for from the projects core budget. A team of volunteers, mainly from Pembrokeshire College’s Science A Level students, support the programme.

   A standard format comprises a field trip, followed by an in-class workshop widening context, linking back to the curriculum (cross curricular), and wider Global Citizenship and Sustainability.

   

   Figure 18 Marten Lewis with pupils looking for life in rock pools

   Rocky Shore Studies (Figure 18)

   Field trip

   At a local beach, to study the physicality of rocky embayments, and a subsequent ecological exploration.

   Handle and examine rock types – discussing the rock cycle. Linking to ice ages and tectonic activity, that have influenced the sediments, rocky erratic’s, cliffs and bays of Pembrokeshire.

   Historical, cultural and industrial links of Pembrokeshire’s Geology – Limestone (Agriculture/house building), coal, slate, dredging etc).

   Identifying the broad diversity of flora and fauna on the rocky shore – expert knowledge dissemination, keys, previous research etc. links to climate change, invasive/alien species (aquiculture/shipping etc).

   Adaptations, food webs, life cycles, habitats.

   Workshop

   Hands on Microscopy session. Learning new skills. Stereo microscopes to study plankton samples.

   Extending learning on life cycles, adaptations, and photosynthesis. 

   Ocean currents, and the influence of weather and climate on the oceans.

   Understanding the massive influence that microscopic organisms have on the balance of life on Earth.

   Raising awareness of the relationship between terrestrial and aquatic exchange – the influence land based actions can have on the marine environment. 

   Increasing knowledge on the interconnectedness of all life and systems on Earth.

   Global citizenship.

   Sustainability.

   Pollution (Figure 19)

   Figure 19. Way ahead of the game – secondary school pupils making a film about marine plastics back in 2010 with Kirsten Hintner and the Sea Watch Foundation

   Renewable Engineering

   Field Trip

   Visit to Carew Tidal Mill to see first-hand large scale 16th century engineering. Carew is an intact tidal mill, which originally serviced a Castle and surrounding community’s flour, oat and barley needs.

   Followed by a visit to a renewable energy company based in Pembrokeshire (there are several), to see devices that are being tested in tidal waters around the coast. Meeting engineers and experts in electricity production and renewable engineering.

   Workshop

   Building wind turbine blades and testing them for efficiency

   Understanding the similarity between historic milling and electricity production.

   Electricity generation

   Understanding the need for renewable energy now and in the future.

   Understanding the current energy mix in the UK and other countries 

   The debate around nuclear, the pros and cons of fossil fuels, the importance of gas in the UK’s current mix.

   The impact on Pembrokeshire’s economy and society – 2 gas terminals, a gas power station, a major international oil refinery, gas and oil storage facilities etc.. 

   Sustainability

   Innovation 

   Careers 

   The outcome

   In 2015, after a decade of delivering STEM field trips and workshops, a review was carried out on the impact of the Darwin Experience programme. A consultation with the Director of Children and Schools at the Local Education Authority, Head teachers, and Teachers produced much anecdotal evidence for the Darwin Experiences’ impact on raising engagement, interest, pupil outputs, teaching, and aspiration. This was supported by an independent survey of Head teachers by Pembrokeshire County Council (2015) (see Table 1 Fig. 20).  Many events are being published in The Young Darwinian.

   

   Fig. 20 Table Head teachers survey

   The consultation revealed that Head teachers felt the impacts were more substantive when pupils had the opportunity to engage with the Darwin Experience multiple times over consecutive years. Most often pupils had one experience during Primary schools. Increased impact through multiple contacts with Darwin Experience was tested with a cohort of male pupils at Ysgol Dewi Sant (St David’s School). Over 2 years, a randomly selected group took part in field trips and workshops around STEM themes with the Darwin Experience – 6 events in 2 years. The cohort raised their attainment of predicted grades from 74% (Control group) to 94%, therefore closing the gender gap between boys (Darwin Experience cohort) and girls at the school. This was a key element on which the school had been asked to improve at their recent inspection by ESTYN (Wales OFSTED).

   This statistical evidence led to the development of a larger 3 year case study 2016-19, which sets out to test the Darwin Experience model over 3 academic years with an entire cluster of Primary schools feeding into Milford Haven Secondary school, involving around 200 pupils. The pupils will take part in Darwin Experience led preparatory lessons (teacher guidance packs have been created), field trips, and follow up sessions, and guided (teacher packs) extension lessons in each academic year, from year 4 until the end of Primary school (Year 6). Local Government is monitoring the attainment levels of all pupils, and will be comparing past data with current data from other school clusters in order to evaluate the impact. Alongside this monitoring, there is an independent study being carried on the attitudinal changes towards STEM as pupils move through each of the 3 years.

   The engagement of all relevant teachers in the primary schools and the secondary school is essential to the relevance of the programme, in terms of transition to secondary education. The Darwin Experience works directly with the primary school liaison officer from each secondary school, and engages with secondary school STEM teachers as part of the development of the primary programme.

   The Model

   The Darwin Experience’s success owes much to the model the Darwin Centre has created. The long termism of the Darwin Experience programme has been crucial, enabled by the reliability of core funding, which has allowed the project to build a rapport around excellence, winning the commitment of local schools and the local Education Authority. The direct links to cutting edge scientific research (Darwin Research and Engagement) gives great credibility.

   The main elements are:

   An expert led autonomous third sector group. Autonomy mitigates mistrust that can arise from a private sector sponsor which may be assumed to be influencing the development of programme.

   Direct links to research, and international scientists.

   A STEM industry sponsor, with a long term vision around STEM education. Private sector funding removes many layers of bureaucracy around Public monies, which allows greater efficiency and value on the funds.

   Time. It takes years to build the relationship with local education sector, before you can attain full take up of a comprehensive programme.

   A base at the local FE College, with access to labs, technicians, resources, and exhibition spaces.

   Continuous dialogue with schools and education experts in order to understand the needs of the schools.

   A relationship with the local education sector built on Trust; Loyalty; Commitment; Shared Value; Empathy; Communication; and Satisfaction – See www.darwincentre.com for a Masters Dissertation on this business approach through the Relationship Marketing paradigm (by Marten Lewis FRSA).

   The engagement of high quality mutually aligned partners e.g. National Park, National Trust, local industry etc., is essential.

   A teacher guidance pack to accompany the practical field/workshop based activities, maximising the impact of contact with the expert provider.

   An ongoing database of shared best lesson/experiences from teachers, as they develop their own resources around the guidance (shared between all teachers in cohort).

   Support of the ‘parent’ secondary school when working with feeder Primary’s

   

   The Darwin Centre hosts a range of lectures by international scientists (Figure 21).

   Figure 21 Lecture on cancer to 6th formers

   Recognition from Education bodies:

   2018 – Sector Leading Practice: Education through Regional Working (ERW) – Welsh Government.

   The tripartite partnership between Voluntary and Private Sector, supporting the Public Sector

   Some comments from teachers:

   Michele Thomas, Headteacher, Pembroke Dock Community School: 

   “Pembroke Dock Community School is within a Communities First area. 36.7% of pupils are on Free School Meals (FSM). Llanion and Central ward are ranked as Pembrokeshire’s 1st /10th most deprived areas. Townsend Deprivation Index rates Pembroke Dock Central and Llanion as among ‘Most Deprived’ electoral divisions in Wales. The Centre for Economic and Social Inclusion reports 69.2% low income families and 45.5% workless families (P Dock). We highly value the Dragon LNG Darwin Experience, a high quality programme dovetailing into the curriculum, further enriching experiences. It is always popular with pupils, with high levels of engagement and participation. It provides access to additional resources and experiences that otherwise would not be available, providing opportunities that widen horizons, raise aspirations and expectations of our pupils. The expertise of the team supports schools and assist pupils gaining high outcomes. Activities that pupils remember as some of their fondest memories of primary school”.

   Kate Evan Hughes, Director of Children and Schools, Pembrokeshire County Council:

    “Inspirational in raising the aspirations of young people, tailoring the project to engage their learning at their level. The team’s passion only outweighed by their commitment to securing best outcomes, and a willingness to engage those around them to secure this, including the Local Authority!  All schools in Pembrokeshire see the project as an integral part of the school curriculum; many Head teachers describe the project as ‘inspirational”.

   Pupils comments 

   “Such an amazing experience and something unforgettable”

   “It has changed my aspect on science in our daily lives”

   “I mostly enjoy that they show you what they are talking about as well”.

   Private Sector recognition:

   • Core sponsors Dragon LNG, have been recognised by industry for their sponsorship of the Darwin Experience many times:
   • Winner: 2017 UK Business in the Community, Responsible Business Award for Education (Figure 5
   • Winner: 2016 South Wales Chambers of Commerce, Community Award
   • Winner: 2016 Business in the Community Cymru, Responsible Business, Award for Education
   • Finalist: 2015 Sustain Wales Awards
   • Finalist: 2015 Business in the Community Cymru, Responsible Business, Award for Education

   

   Figure 22 UK National BiTC Responsible Business Awards at the Royal Albert Hall with Karen Wood Dragon LNG

   Imagine a private sector sponsored, autonomous ‘Darwin Centre’ in every education region. An inspiration for the future. The Darwin Centre has a close link with The Young Darwinian, which will publish regularly student projects and events.

   Acknowledgements

   Funding has come from a wide range of public and private sources. The Darwin Centre is very grateful for support from Dragon LNG, Pembrokeshire College, Pembrokeshire County Council, Cardiff University, Welston Court Science Centre, and the European Union.

   Reviewed by: Professor Anthony Campbell
   

5. Student Article – Beavers on the march

   1:16 pm Leave a Comment

   Beavers on the march – Lucy Mooney

   Reviewed by Dr Chiara Pazzagli

   Pembrokeshire College, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire, SA61 1SZ, UK

   Lucy is a mature student studying ‘Access to Higher Education in Biosciences at Pembrokeshire College. She has taken part in workshops, which were part of the “Discovering Living Light” project (See Issue 1) at the Darwin Centre. She is very enthusiastic about all aspects of biology, and will study zoology at Exeter University.

   Key words: beaver, Castor, flooding,

   Background

   In 2016, the Scottish Government granted permission for beavers released during the Scottish Beaver Trial to remain living wild in the Knapdale area of Scotland (scottishbeavers.org, 2016). This marks the first ever-successful reintroduction of a previously extinct mammal to the British Isles.  Further trials are underway in Devon and Cornwall and consultations are underway to reintroduce beavers to Wales (Elliot et al. 2017, Hailey et al. 2009). What is a beaver, what are the reasons for its reintroduction, and how will they affect the British countryside?

   The beaver

   Fig. 15 The Beaver

   The beaver is a large semi-aquatic rodent, which builds dams, but was hunted to extinction in the UK in the 16th century. There are two species the North American beaver (Castor canadensis) and UK native species, the Eurasian beaver (C. fibre). The case for reintroducing the beaver rests on three main arguments, beavers aid flood management, improve water quality in rivers and increase biodiversity.

   The problem

   Flooding is becoming more common in the UK, causing many problems across the country. In 2014, extreme flooding of the Somerset Levels caused people to be evacuated from their homes, and £6 million was spent on dredging 8km of river. £100 million was designated for ‘The Somerset Levels and Moors Flood Action Plan’, and an estimated £200 million was lost from tourism in Somerset (Mann, 2016).   Beaver reintroductions are being considered to mitigate flood damage.

   How beavers help prevent flooding

    A 2016 study of beavers in the Tamar in Devon, (Exeter University) found that their dams reduced water flow by an average of 22%.

    Also beaver dams filtered the river, improving water quality.  Samples taken below the dams had reduced quantities of:

   Suspended sediment < 65%

   Organic nitrogen < 35%

   Phosphates < 80%

    Beaver dams trap suspended sediment. The reduced water flow means   substances heavier than water sink to the bottom.

   Fresh water systems cover less than 1% of the Earth yet support 12% of all animal species.   Intense agricultural practices have caused a serious decline in species (defra.gov.uk. 2016). Therefore, it is important that we try to preserve and restore these vital ecosystems.

    Studies have shown the beavers ability to transform degraded agricultural land into   vibrant ecosystems, e.g. Scottish beavers increased biodiversity by 148% in 10-12 years (Law et.al. 2017). They increased areas of standing water,  increasing freshwater invertebrates. They raised light availability by felling trees allowing more plant species to flourish. 

   The advantages and disadvantages

    Many anglers object to beavers, because dams impair salmon migration. However, beavers only build dams on streams that are about a metre wide. This means that on main river trunks, salmon migration is not affected.  The level of migration impairment is dependent on variables such as water levels, dam height and season (Verbickas et.al. 2015).  Nevertheless, effects of beaver dams on salmon populations will need to be monitored and no doubt, the Angling Trust will ensure this happens.

    Beaver tourism may boost rural economies; reintroduction of sea eagles to the Isle of Mull is estimated to have increased the islands economy by £5 million a year.  However, although this is a much-needed source of revenue for rural communities, those who benefit most from this are not the same people who are negatively affected by beaver presence. Although the damage caused is relatively small compared with the benefits brought by beaver, it is largely farmers who gain little to no economic benefit from beavers and who are detrimentally affected by their presence.

   What the public think

   A majority of the British public feel positively about the reintroduction of the beaver (Jones et.al. 2016).  The success of the Scottish Beaver Trial means plans to reintroduce the beaver to other parts of the UK are less controversial. After 400 years, the beaver is now resident in several areas of the UK.

   Although beaver reintroductions are not without issue, it is tempting to agree with Paul Ramsey whose land is home to a family of beavers:

   “When you consider that in Europe as a whole, this creature was on the very brink of extinction, and yet has made an incredible comeback, this is a fantastic conservation success story – and something we should be boasting about” (bbc.co.uk 2012).

   Bibliography

   1. BBC.co.uk (2012) ‘Beaver tourism’: can it work? [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/20152978 [Accessed 28 February 2018 09:14]. 
   2. Defra.gov.uk (2016) UK Lowland Wetland Habitats [online] Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-1433 [Accessed 23 April 2018 18:18].
   3. Elliot, M., Blythe, C., Brazier, R.E., Burgess, P., King, S., Puttock, A., Turner, C. (2017) Beavers- Nature’s Water Engineers. 1st ed. [pdf] Devon: Devon Wildlife Trust, Available at: http://www.devonwildlifetrust.org/enclosed-beaver-project  [Accessed 18 February 2018 12:19]. 
   4. Hailey, D.J., Jones, A.C.L., Chesworth, S., Hall, C., Gow, D., Parry, R.J., Walsh, J., (2009) The reintroduction of the Eurasian beaver Castor fibre to Wales: an ecological feasibility study. 1st ed. [pdf] Trondheim: Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Available at: http://www.welshbeaverproject.org/downloads/ [Accessed 10 January 2018 18:16]. 
   5. Jones, S. Campbell-Palmer, R. (2014) Scottish Beaver Trial: Final Report. [PDF] Available at: https://www.scottishbeavers.org.uk/beaver-facts/publications/  [Accessed 09 December 2018]. 
   6. Law, A. Gaywood, M. Jones, K. Ramsey, P. Willby, N. (2017) Using ecosystem engineers as tools in habitat restoration and rewilding: beaver and wetlands. [PDF] Available at: http://www.welshbeaverproject.org/downloads/ [Accessed 10 January 2018 18:17]. 
   7. Mann, C (2016) Flooding in the Somerset Levels: 2014 [PDF] Available at: https://geogteacher.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/gactive-somerset-levels-up-to-q5.pdf  [Accessed 20 January 2018 13:42]. 
   8. Puttock, A., Graham, H., Cunliffe, A., Elliot, M., Brazier, R., (2016) Eurasian beaver activity increases water storage, attenuates flow and mitigates diffuse pollution from intensively-managed grasslands [PDF] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969716323099/pdfft?md5=91d7c9019d16bf0671c316ae57c0425e&pid=1-s2.0-S0048969716323099-main.pdf [Accessed 21 January 2018 16:27]. 
   9. Scottishbeavers.org (2016) Beavers are back in Scotland. [online] Available at: https://www.scottishbeavers.org.uk/ [Accessed 10 January 2018 14:22]. 
   10. Scottishbeavers.org (2016) Beaver Facts. [online] Available at: https://www.scottishbeavers.org.uk/beaver-facts/ [Accessed 10 January 2018 14:32]
   11. Sruc.ac.uk (2016) Understanding the socio-economic impacts of beavers in Scotland [PDF] Available at: https://www.sruc.ac.uk/download/downloads/id/2938/2016_understanding_the_socio-economic_impacts_of_beavers_in_scotland.pdf [Accessed 28 February 2018 10:44].  
   12. Verbickas, T., Stakenas, S., Steponenas, A. (2015) Impact of Beaver Dams on Abundance and Distribution of Anadromous Salmonids in Two Lowland Streams in Lithuania. PLoS ONE [online] Vol. 10 (4). Available at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123107 [Accessed 25 February 2018 18:56]. 
   13. Walkhighlands.co.uk (2011) Sea eagles bring millions to Mull’s economy. [online] Available at: https://www.walkhighlands.co.uk/news/5m-sea-eagle-benefit-to-mull-economy/004367/ [Accessed 23 April 2018 18:28].

   Beavers on the March

   Student Article Review by Dr Chiara Pazzagli, Clinical Scientist and Patient Advocate at Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland

   What are the strong points of the article?

   The subject matter of this article is likely to be of interest to a range of readers – those interested in conservation, natural and environmental science, but also budding scientists looking at water pollution and natural filtration systems. The writing style is accessible and the student shows a passion for her subject.

   What could the student have done differently?

   I would have liked to have seen a little more background of WHY beavers build dams and also some analysis of how reduced water flow causes sediments to sink. There was no explanation of why the reintroduction of sea eagles on Mull had boosted the local economy.

   Building on what they have discovered, what further exploration would be useful/interesting?

   As well as fleshing out the points above, I would love to know more about why beavers had been hunted in the past and more about their wider contribution to the ecology of their habitat. Conservationists would be especially interested in how species re-introductions are managed and monitored. The great thing about a good article is that, in addition to learning something, you always have lots of questions at the end!

   
   

6. Student article – Discovering Living Light

   1:11 pm Leave a Comment

   Discovering living light – Heather Emberson-Marl age 18

   Ysgol y Preseli  Pembrokeshire

   Key Words: Bioluminescence; hydroid; Obelia, Darwin Centre, brittle star

   Background

   I attended several Darwin Centre workshops as part of the “Discovering Living Light” project. In 2016, I was lucky enough to have my brain lit up by bioluminescence. My journey of discovery started with an adventure into the lab and dark rooms at Welston Court Science Centre with Professor Anthony Campbell, and Dr Valerie Morse. It was my first steps into the world of creatures that can ‘flash’ in the dark – by amazingly making their own light. I also learnt the difference between bioluminescence and fluorescence and the fact that they both have applications in medicine. Eventually this would lead me to discover bioluminescence for myself by snorkelling for samples and finally extracting a magic protein that I triggered with calcium ions to light up, under the watchful eye of Dr Valerie Morse, a lover of hydroids and all things bioluminescent.

   Aims

   Having seen and measured bioluminescence and fluorescence in the workshop at Welston Court, I then wanted to see if I could find bioluminescent or fluorescent marine organisms at two different sites in Pembrokeshire. The sites were St Brides bay and Milford Haven marina. A second aim was to determine if I could extract photoprotein from any bioluminescent hydroids that I found.

   Background to bioluminescence

   Living light or bioluminescence is light production from the mixing of chemical components in living creatures. These creatures can include jellyfish, hydroids, sea pens and brittle stars (Morse, 2013).  

   What are the components of the light reaction?

   The components of the light reaction are; luciferin, luciferase and oxygen. In a classic bioluminescent reaction, marine organisms like the sea pansy mix these components together to produce light. The enzyme luciferase catalyses the reaction (Campbell, 2003). A more recent discovery is that the hydroid Obelia geniculata contains a photoprotein, which has the key components for the reaction bound together.

   In the presence of calcium ions, a photoprotein will emit blue light. The first photoprotein was discovered in the jellyfish Aequeorea and is called aequorin. Osamu Shimomura (1987) discovered aequorin (Morse, 2013).

   Two of the bioluminescent species that I found in Pembrokeshire are hydroids.

   What are hydroids?

   Hydroids are a life stage of most animals in the class Hydrozoa, in the phylum Cnidaria. and are predators related to jellyfish. Hydroids can appear as branched plants or jelly fish like animals, they are colonial animals, meaning that what appears to be one organism, is in fact many smaller organisms living together to create a colony. Hydroids are often in branching forms, the polyps are surrounded by a shell of chitin. The central stalk that is attached to a hard surface, will appear to grow branches. The life cycle of a hydroid such as Obelia includes two life stages; a mainly stationary polyp phase and a free moving medusa phase. These organisms will spend most of their life in polyp form, of which there are two types, a feeding polyp termed a hydranth and reproductive polyp, called a gonotheca (Morse, 2013).

   Methods

   Sample collection at St Brides

   To collect samples of marine creatures at St Brides bay my aim was to find the oar weed Laminaria and look for the fine hair like strands of Obelia. Snorkelling was an ideal observation tool due to most of the Laminaria being submerged in deep water. Brittle stars are found in the holdfasts of Laminaria so I looked for those as well. My friend Angharad used an underwater “go pro” to film the marine life in the bay. I was accompanied by a friend, my mum, and Valerie Morse for safety reasons.

   Collecting samples at Milford Haven Marina

   Samples were obtained from weighted boards and ropes positioned in Milford Haven marina (Morse, 2013).

   Light microscopy

   To identify and photograph specimens we used a binocular microscope and Panasonic camera at the Darwin Centre research lab, and at Welston Court Science centre.

   Extraction of Photoprotein

   I used a method established by Prof Anthony Campbell for this (Campbell, 1974).

   Determining which species were fluorescent

   To view fluorescence in marine specimens I used the Hund microscope at Welston Court Science centre.

   Photek Imaging

   To test the brittle star Amphipholas squamata, for bioluminescence we used the Photek imaging camera at Welston court.

   Determining which species were bioluminescent

   Bioluminescence was measured by using a chemiluminometer. A specimen was placed in a small LP 3 tube, which was then inserted into the chemiluminometer. Potassium ions are then added to trigger bioluminescence. The chemiluminometer contains a photomultiplier tube, which counts the photons coming from the marine creatures.

   Results

    Marine species  identified from St Brides Bay

   Green fluorescent protein in the photocyte of Obelia longissima a bioluminescent hydroid which lives in Milford Haven marina, magnification X1000.

   A brittle star Amphipholas squamata, found at St Brides and identified using the light microscope at Welston Court Science Centre. The bioluminescence was confirmed by recording it on the Photek imaging system.

   A Blue ray limpet from St Brides bay.

     A marine gastropod mollusc from the patellidae family. I thought this was fluorescent due to green fluorescent protein. I have now found out that its fluorescence is due to materials in its shell (Ling and Kolle, 2015).The fluorescence fades in adult specimens.

   Marine species identified from Milford Haven marina

   There was a small light response from the scale worm: it may therefore be a bioluminescent species.

   Light production from the photoprotein obelin

   Average counts per second from the obelin photoprotein I extracted from Obelia longissima. The photo protein produced less light when stimulated by calcium ions than was expected. However, results show that the bioluminescent hydroid Obelia longissima, in Milford marina does contain the photoprotein.

   Presenting my results

   In 2017 I presented a summary of my project at the Milford Haven Port authority to an audience that included Prof Campbell and Dr Stephanie Matthews. Speaking in front of a larger audience was a nerve wracking, but a very valuable experience.

   Conclusion

   I found 4 different bioluminescent species at the two sample sites. I also found a scale worm that was possibly bioluminescent, and I would like to go on to discover if it has a photoprotein.

   I recorded the bioluminescence of Amphipholis squamata using the photek imaging system, with the guidance of Prof Campbell, and this showed me that the light producing cells (photocytes) are in the tentacles, of the specimen and not in the central disk. I found two bioluminescent species of hydroid Obelia longissima and Obelia geniculate. Both species were also fluorescent because they contain green fluorescent protein. I have now found out that this protein is in Obelia’s light producing cells and changes the wavelength of its bioluminescence from blue to green. Another hydroid Dymena pumila was not bioluminescent or fluorescent but this species can act as a useful control when conducting experiments. I successfully extracted obelin from Obelia longissima and it did produce a maximum of 5200 counts per second in the chemiluminometer. This was a relatively low reading so it is well worth repeating this experiment at different times of the year. Obelin is an important photoprotein because it can be used to measure calcium ions in living cells (Campbell, 2018).

   The blue ray limpet was fascinating. I initially thought it would contain GFP but I have now found out that the fluorescence is due to materials in its shell (Ling and Kolle, 2015.The fluorescence fades in adult specimens.

   This project has allowed me to develop my scientific skills particularly in microscopy, imaging and identification of marine specimens. These will be very useful to me when I go to University. I have also learnt a great deal about how to write up and present scientific experiments.  Some of the experiments I only carried out once due to the time available, but I now know that experiments have to be conducted in triplicate and an average taken to produce accurate results.

   The hydroids and brittle star were so beautiful under the microscope that they inspired me to use them in my Art A level coursework. I made my notes on them in Welsh because I am a Welsh speaker and the language is very important to me. 

   Acknowledgements:

   Thanks are due to Dr Valerie Morse for guiding me through experiments and advice about presenting and writing up my results. I would also like to thank Prof Campbell for all his help and my friend Anghared Noakes who helped me snorkel for samples and also took part in experiments at the Darwin research lab.

   Bibliography

   1. Campbell, AK (1988). Chemiluminescence: principles and applications in biology and medicine, pp608. Horwood/VCH, Chichester and Weinheim. ISBN 3-527-26342-X. 0 7156 2499 7.
   2. Campbell, AK (1994). Rubicon: the fifth dimension of biology. pp 304. Duckworth, London, 0 7156 2499 7.
   3. Campbell, AK (2018). Fundamentals of intracellular calcium, Wiley, Chichester.
   4. Campbell, AK (2003).  Save those molecules! Molecular biodiversity and life.  Journal of Applied Ecology. 40:193-203
   5. Campbell, AK (2003).  Rainbow Makers. Chemistry in Britain June 2003:30-33
   6. Ling and Kolle 2015 
   7. Morse, VJ (2013). The regulation and origin of bioluminescence in the hydroid Obelia. Thesis Cardiff University.
   8. Shimomura (1987) or his book

   Reviewers comment:

   Valerie Morse

   Aisha Noman
   

7. Student article – What has more bacteria, a door knob or a toilet seat?

   1:06 pm Leave a Comment

   What has more bacteria, a door knob or a toilet seat?

   Evan Hobson and Rhys Gibbs,

   Plasmawr School , Cardiff, Wales, UK

   Reviewed by Prof. Caroline Sewry, PhD  FRCPath, Professor of Muscle Pathology,  Dubowitz Neuromuscular Centre, Institute of Child Health and Great Ormond Street Hospital

   Background

   The reason we did this experiment was to see whether there is truth the rumour that there are more germs on a doorknob than on a toilet seat. Our two hypotheses were 1) there being more bacteria on the door handle and 2) there being more bacteria on the toilet seat.

   Method

   We collected bacteria from a public house. We used a swab on a doorknob to the lounge, and another swab from a toilet seat. We put these swabs into petrie dishes we made out of plastic takeaway dishes (sanitised in the dishwasher). We then poured in agar (a gel that bacteria thrives in and grows into spores) which we made out of beef stock sugar and boiling water. The boiling water was there in order to kill the bacteria already in the beef stock and sugar. The dishes were covered with cling film. We left the mix for 3 days and then looked at the number of spores which had grown in the agar.

   Fig. Spores on toilet seats

   Conclusion and discussion

   The doorknob accumulated a quantity of bacteria superior to the toilet seat. The major culprit behind this outcome is some individuals refrain from sanitizing their hands correctly. Studies show that the majority of the population wash their hands incorrectly after attending the rest room. 

   (Advice from G Pritchard, Science Teacher; Research team also included E Davies, O Morgan and Z Mills) 

   Review

   This study addresses a very important issue with regard to correct washing of hands after going to the toilet. The authors have highlighted that many people do not do this adequately and, of course, this also applies to other areas of life. The implications of not washing hands correctly could have been discussed. For example, if there are bacteria on our hands what are the consequences of this. Is it always bad? Do the authors consider there are important areas where hand cleanliness is important, perhaps in the kitchen could be discussed. Where have the bacteria found on the door knobs come from?

   The door knob to the lounge was studied. It is not clear from the methods if the door knob on the outside or inside was studied. Is there a difference? Are there other areas that are equally or more or less contaminated. Perhaps the door handle of a cubicle, tap handles, or the flush handle or button. Was the door knob of the lounge the most appropriate area to swab (from ‘lounge’ I assume the authors studied the main entrance door)?

   Most experiments in science require a control as a comparison for testing an hypothesis. What control could have used in this study? Perhaps cleaning some knobs with disinfectant and seeing if swabs from these grew bacteria in comparison with the uncleaned ones. Is disinfectant the best control or is there something else better to kill bacteria?

   In the methods what swab was used? Could anything in this have affected or reduced the number of bacteria that grew? The authors took appropriate measures to ensure  that the plastic trays and agar did not have bacteria  that would have influenced their results

   Well done to the designers of this project who have raised hypotheses, designed a study to answer their questions and drawn conclusions from their results, Scientific studies often raise further questions to answer, these could be raised at the end of the report.
   

   
   

8. Student article – Do penguins keep warmer with lots of penguins around them, or is material better at keeping their heat in? – Sophie Knoyle and Chloe Coombs

   4th March 2020 2:34 pm Leave a Comment

   Ysgol Plasmawr, Cardiff

   (Also in this team was L Jones, and teacher advisor was C Amos for Science and K James for literacy).

   Reviewed by Ceire Wincott BSc, Postgraduate student in Drug Design and Discovery at Imperial College, London

   Background

   In the Antarctic penguins huddle to keep the heat in because it’s very cold. We predicted that the penguin in the middle is warmer with penguins around it than with material around it. We also experimented with different numbers of penguins in the huddle.

   As you can tell by the question, two experiments were needed. The two experiments were ‘The experiment with one, seven and nineteen test tubes’ and ‘The experiment with different materials’.

   Our independent variable was the temperature. Our dependent variable was the quantity of test tubes needed in the experiment with nineteen test tubes, seven test tubes and one test tube. The dependent variable for the material experiment is the materials. Six different materials were used: kitchen roll, foam, card, tin foil,

   felt and cotton wool. That is the only thing that changed during the experiment.

   Methods

   Fair Experiment

   Make sure the same amount of water is in each test tube.

    Make sure the water temperature is 60˚c at the start of each experiment. 

   Make sure we check the temperature at the correct time. 

   Make sure the same amount of material is around each test tube.

   Make sure materials don’t overlap as this could affect the results.

   

   Experiment 1

   First, measure 11cm up the test tubes and draw a line with a white board pen.

   With the experiment with 1, 7 and 19 test tubes, boil the kettle and pour the boiling water in to all of the test tubes (19) up to the line.

   Next, put the thermometer into the test tube in the middle and wait for the temperature to drop to 60˚c.

   Experiment 2

   Measure a piece of material 11cm x 6cm. 

   Do this with all of the different types of materials.

   Next, put the different materials around the test tubes by using sellotape.

   Do this with all the different types of materials.

   Then, place one test tube and a thermometer into the beaker, and wait for the temperature to drop to 60 c. 

   For both experiments carry out the following steps.

   Start the timers – one for 1 minute, one for 5 minutes, one for 10 minutes and one for 15 minutes.

   Then, wait for the 1 minute timer to finish and record the temperature in the table.

   1. Repeat with all the different times (1, 5, 10 and 15 minutes).
   2. Repeat the experiment twice to get accurate results. 
   3. Repeat this experiment with all of the materials.
   4. Repeat this by using 1, 7 and 19 test tubes.

   Results: Experiment 1

   The graph shows the results for the experiment with 1, 7 and 19 test tubes. It shows the temperature drops as the time goes on. The more test tubes, the warmer the test tube in the middle stays. 

   We saw that the penguin on its own was the coldest because there was nothing surrounding it to keep the heat in. If penguins didn’t huddle, they would lose their heat very quickly because there would  nothing to keep the heat in. With the seven test tubes, it keeps the heat in more than the one on its own because there are test tubes surrounding that keep the heat in. The experiment with nineteen test tubes kept the heat in the most.

   

   

   Results: Experiment 2

   We saw that the material that kept the heat in the most was tin foil. After 1 minute the material that kept the heat in the best was the cotton wool. After 5 minutes the material that kept the heat it the most was the tin foil. After 10 minutes it was still the tin foil and after the full 15 minutes it was the tin foil again, the average temperature was 32.3˚c. As you can see, the temperature dropped 27.7˚c after the 15 minutes. The material that lost the most heat was the kitchen paper. The temperature dropped 33.7˚c after the 15 minutes.

   The graph shows the results for the materials. You can see the tin foil is the best material to keep the heat in. Also, the graph shows that every 5 minutes the temperature drops.

   Conclusion

   We have discovered that penguins are warmer in a group than with materials surrounding it. In the experiment with 19 test tubes the highest temperature was 59.7˚c. In the experiment with materials surrounding the test tubes the highest temperature was 48˚c and this was tin foil.

   Discussion

   In real life, we think this shows penguin feathers are very good at keeping the heat in. We have proved that the more penguins in a group, the warmer the penguins will be. While doing the experiment, we saw that penguins are better huddling in a group than wearing materials. The materials don’t keep the heat in as well as a group of penguins. 

   The penguins on the outside were colder.  The average after fifteen minutes on the inside with 18 test tubes surrounding was 54˚c, but on the outside the temperature was 48˚c. This shows that penguins on the outside are colder. That’s why real penguins take it in turn to be in the middle of the group. They also take it in turn to be in the middle because the penguin in the middle will get too hot.

   Analysis and Evaluation 

   The experiment very successful, and everybody hypothesised correctly – the penguins are warmer in a group than with materials surrounding them. If we were to do the experiment again, we would start the temperature at 75˚c, instead of starting it at 60˚c. Also, we would do the experiment over a longer time. This would give us different results, and we could see if nineteen test tubes keep the heat in for an hour. This would be very interesting. We would also like to see how much time it takes for the test tubes to reach room temperature. Next time, we will do the experiment with different materials. 

   Do Penguins Keep Warmer With Lots of Penguins Around Them Or Is Material Better At Keeping Their Heat In?

   Review of Student Article by Ceire Wincott BSc, Postgraduate student in Drug Design and Discovery at Imperial College, London

   What are the strong points of the article?

   This is an interesting idea and the experimental practice is very good. There are lots of measures put in place to ensure the experiment is suitably repeatable and that the results could be compared across the two experiments; crucial in this kind of study. Also the wide range of materials used in the second experiment shows that the students had thought about this and planned carefully. The data recording is clear with the graphs very nicely illustrating the findings. The evaluation section showed that the students were keen to learn how to improve their approach. Given our increasing emphasis on energy conservation and the investment in insulation techniques, it is great to see scientists examining what we can learn from the nature.

   What could the student have done differently?

   It would have been interesting to know the average body temperature of a penguin and tried to replicate/sustain that temperature. The test tubes could have been placed in a cold environment – more representative of the Antarctic but this would have been difficult to control in school. I would always carry out an experiment like this until the temperature stabilises i.e. until the temperature drop between readings slows right down. This would give you a better idea of how insulating each material is.

   Building on what they have discovered, what further exploration would be useful/interesting?

   Having read this study I am interested to read more research into penguin feathers and the insulation they provide. Are they much better than the feathers of other birds? It would also be interesting to explore why ‘huddling’ works more effectively than material insulation. Do other animals in cold climates behave in a similar way or do any of them use other materials? You have got me thinking!
   

9. Student article – How accurate is the science of Ridley Scotts 2015 movie ‘The Martian’? Jacob Rees

   12:31 pm Leave a Comment

   

   Jacob Rees Aged 15yrs

   Subject area: Primarily Biology, with a little Chemistry and Physics as well.

   Key words: Ridley Scott, Mars, Martian, food

   Background

   Considering this film came out in the cinemas on 30th September 2015 in the UK, I would have been only 12 then, and I have to say I thoroughly enjoyed it. This is not what we are here to discuss though, as this is not a review of a movie. This is tearing into the science of a movie to show that Hollywood didn’t do their research. During this investigation, I will be looking into the science behind Ridley Scott’s movie ‘The Martian’, and showing how this film is scientifically inaccurate (or this is, at least, my predication), which will include investigating the possibility of growing potatoes on Mars and surviving only off potatoes for the period in the movie.

   Can you survive on a diet of Just potatoes?

   Surviving 400 days on just potatoes, and a small box of rations you found left behind on your research base on Mars, sounds more than a little far fetched! Right? Well, that’s what I thought as well, until I started digging. Potatoes provide most things that our bodies need to survive, save for vitamins A, B-12, E, and calcium. There has even been a case where a man ate nothing but potatoes for about 2 months straight1

   “Chris Voight, executive director of the Washington Potato Commission, set himself the task of cutting out all other foodstuffs for 60 days to prove the nutritional value of the starchy vegetable.”2

   Obviously, this was not the most palatable diet a man could have, but it was enough to keep him going. The main problem lies in the portion size. Voight was eating around 20 spuds a day. At his best, we see that Matt Damon is eating only a single potato per day, as he is trying to ration himself. This is all good, until you encounter the problem that the human body requires around 2,000 calories per day to function properly, whereas a single potato only holds 159 calories1.

   This, of course, is relative to the requirements on Earth. Mars’s gravity is only a third of the gravity on Earth, meaning that our Martian would have to spend much less energy to carry out work on Mars than he would have to on Earth. This means that, despite seeing him doing a ton of work every day to make sure he stays alive, he is spending much less energy in doing this. Add to his income some extra calories due to his rations, and some pills that we see his crew left behind (likely including vitamins), and it’s very easy to believe that the Martian could survive on this diet. So, well done Hollywood. Martian 1, me, 0.

   Could you grow potatoes on Mars?

   So, after realising that potatoes are a viable survival option for Matt on Mars, we need to now know how he is going to get these potatoes in the first place. Well, an experiment was conducted by researchers in the Netherlands to investigate this, by planting 4,200 plant seed in Martian-like soil for 50 days to see if they grew. 

   “I was very surprised when we found out plants grew better in the Mars soil than in the Earth soil. The Earth soil that we used was quite clean, a kind of river soil, relatively poor in minerals. But I didn’t expect the Mars soil to produce better plants, Wamelink told Euronews3”.

   Unfortunately, there is a problem with this experiment. First, the control experiment they did used soil that was low in mineral value. So it was less likely to produce healthy plants than standard Earth soil, which gave the Martian soil an advantage. Also, we must consider that, on Earth, we have microbes that fix nitrogen from the air into nitrates in the soil, which are then a key ingredient in the plant’s growth, as they are used to make plant proteins. Mars is also 1.5x the distance Earth is from the sun, meaning it also will only get 60% of the sunlight, as shown in the image below.

   Fig. 13 Mars distance 7

   

   As a result, the potato plants are not very likely to grow, and if they do, it will be at a rate so slow that you should say your prayers4.

   But low and behold, Matt has a solution to this, which is quite literally rubbish. As we see in the film, Matt Damon uses his own faeces as fertilizer for the potato plants, which in theory would work. However he makes one fatal mistake. All human faeces carries potential pathogens. We are immune to our own microbiome, but the microbes that come from other people could be pathogenic to us. This means that, when Matt went and collected the left behind faeces from his crew mates, and used this as fertilizer, he would have exposed the potato plants to this as well. This means they would also become potentially deadly to Matt. This is, again, if we were on Earth. The faeces (or biosolids) have been exposed to Mars’ atmosphere and temperature, which is at -60̊ C (-80̊ F) meaning that these biosolids would have been freeze dried becasue the temperature being so low, and therefore the pathogens would have died⁵. So, once again, Matt Damon gets away free of charges. 2-0 to The Martian.

   My final point, which should surely be the winning point for me, is that Mars has something very deadly in its soil. Recent missions to Mars have all sent back conclusive evidence that perchlorates riddle the soil of Mars, which is a highly toxic chloride/oxide ion. They are salts, capable of disrupting the body’s metabolic systems. They are also able to interrupt our ability to absorb iodine, throwing off our hormones, which then disrupts sleep, appetite, and more. The thing is, these are salts, and they are soluble in water. This means that all the Martian soil needs is a bath, and the perchlorates would have been completely removed. You could even then get the water back, and dump the perchlorates by distilling the solution after removing it from the soil. This also then means a very small amount of water is needed to treat a large quantity of soil6. So, hate it as much as I do, that’s a 3-0 win to The Martian. I would congratulate Hollywood for this, but I won’t, as the original story came from Andy Weir in 2008. So, Andy, well done. You have won my seal of approval for your sound science.

   Bibliography

   1. https://www.verywellfit.com/are-potatoes-good-for-you-2506382
   2. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/martian-soil-suitable-growing-plants-researchers-find-1432658 
   3. https://www.space.com/16875-how-far-away-is-mars.html
   4. https://www.space.com/16907-what-is-the-temperature-of-mars.html
   5. https://www.seeker.com/space/planets/toxic-martian-soil-may-be-deadly-to-organic-microbial-life-on-the-surface
   6. spacecoastdaily.com/2016/03/nasa-releases-some-fun-facts-about-mars-part-of-jouneytomars-program/ Date accessed: 14/7/18 (Only images were taken from this site) 

   Reviewed by:

   Professor Anthony Campbell

   Josh Maddocks
   

10. Student article – Regulation of Integrin Alpha 6 in relation to myelination. Rachel Gump

    12:06 pm 1 Comment

    Regulation of Integrin Alpha 6 in Relation to Myelination – An Exploration of Peripheral Nervous System Repair

    

    Rachel Gump. Biology/Neuroscience Age: 18 years

    Key Words: Integrin Alpha 6, Schwann cell, Genotype, Peripheral Nervous System, Myelin 

    Abstract

    The aim of my project was to study the impact of specific genotypes on the differentiation of Schwann cells1, and therefore the subsequent effect on myelination, post severe nerve injury2,3. This involved the dissection of Sciatic nerves from mice, with genetic combinations to result in the genotype I (-Fl/Fl-). These mice thus did not produce the correct amount of Integrin Alpha 6 to repair their nerves effectively after an injury. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) confirmed this. I was also a part of exploring options for cancer treatments. The results gained from the nerve research, that is the quantifying of the amounts of protein in relation to the myelin present, enlightened further the role of protein pathways in differentiation of specialised cells through the body. Applying my research, medicines are now being trialled to see their effect on stunting the growth of Schwannoma cell tumours by blocking the Hippo pathway.

    Background

    My research began as a placement through the Nuffield Foundation at Plymouth University to gain work experience. However, this quickly snowballed into key findings in the neuroscience community that allowed me to explore the field deeper.

    To start, I had to carry out some scholarly research into the origins of my project4,5. This involved reading previous reports by neuroscientists, including Glenn & Talbot1, Parkinson2,3, and Xu6. Surprisingly, most of my reading led me to Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852 – 1934) who is widely regarded as the father of neuroscience7. Artist turned neuroscientist, he published many works describing his theory on the function of the nervous system as a means of several working parts to coalesce into one entity, and drew many structures in the brain, including Purkinje cells named after their discoverer, Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně in 1839 (Figure 1). Cajal, who won the Nobel prize in 19068, became a major inspiration for my research, and allowed me to have a greater appreciation for how far modern science has come, and how much can change in such a short period of time. He was the first to describe the Purkinje cells in the brain  named after their discoverer, Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně in 1839 (Figure 1).

    Figure 7 Drawing of Purkinje cells 

    

    (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, 1899. Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain.

    Public domain – https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PurkinjeCell.jpg.  This is done with ink on paper, using microscope images. This shows the intense way that nerves can lace together to form a network whilst still being individual. This is done with ink on paper, using microscope images.

    Methods

    PCR: During the course of my placement, a primary technique used was PCR. This is used with DNA samples to test for the presence of proteins, namely focusing on the absence of TAZ9. PCR allows the researcher to easily distinguish the genotype of the different DNA samples. My purpose of the genotyping was to find the correct nerve sample to view the myelination levels and compare to the control (Figure 2).

    Staining and Imaging: After sections have been cut and placed on the slides, ensuring the slide is positively charged, it is now time to stain the nerve sample. This process of staining is done by attaching layers of antibodies to the cells, in an effort to illuminate the different areas of the cell needed to document. Essential to staining being successful, the slide must first be permeabilized using a solution of BSA and Triton.

    Figure 8. PCR showing necessary genotype

    

    Well 4 shows that the sample is a TAZ knockout genotype, and well 5 has both copies of the TAZ gene present. These bands are illuminated by UV light on agarose gel.

    This allows the antibodies to enter the cell, across the cell membrane, and attach to the correct sites. Antibodies must be picked carefully for staining, and the appropriate layering system must be used to ensure accurate and clear images. These theory-based questions should be answered before attempting to stain, as it will impact how staining is done and in what order. For my first staining, I used a two layer system with Hoescht dye and integrin alpha 6 (Figure 3).

    Figure 9. Nerve with Integrin Alpha 6 Illuminated against Hoescht Dye.

    

    This is taken using the confocal microscope. A series of images are overlaid to get this final result. The honeycomb pattern shows the level of myelination present around the nerve axons.

    Imaging: I used a variety of microscopes to ensure the images I gained were of a high quality and magnification, to fully quantify and compare the myelination present. The images below are taken from the Confocal microscope, which uses laser excitation to contrast the colors on the proteins. 

    Results

    The positive results from the PCR allowed me to unequivocally know that the nerve I was staining and examining was indeed possessing the correct experimental genotype. Using an optical microscope to check that the stain and section of nerve had taken was also an important step before imaging, and must also be a positive result. Imaging allowed the conclusion to be reached that the protein levels are indeed significant to the myelination of the nerve. These results were also scrutinised for error, for example, a contamination in the PCR step could alter the results and skew the conclusions of the investigation (Figure 4).

    Figure 10. Water Contamination PCR (lower left well)

    

     The slight illumination here shows that there has been cross contamination in the control, and that these results may not be fully accurate. Therefore another PCR must be run.

    A contamination is seen when the band on a control sample is illuminated, pointing to human error in setting up the apparatus.

    Conclusions

    To conclude, my project has taken small steps toward helping a much bigger picture: to figure out exactly which proteins affect the peripheral nervous system’s repair, and could be involved in pain10. More specifically, I was trying to determine the difference in levels of myelination between nerves with contrasting genotypes of Fl/fl CRE+ or fl/fl CRE-. Initial, significant results culminated in the final imaging of the nerves with a confocal and/or Zeiss microscope, capable of high quality photography. These images captured are then used in a number of fascinating ways, such as counting the tissues present, observing and comparing differing samples, and further photography with a multitude of different apparatuses.

    Acknowledgements

    I would like to sincerely thank everyone involved in my project, from the very beginning. Mr. Andrew Petherick helped me to gain the research position in the first place, along with Dr. Peter Maunder and Mr. Robert Taylor, both fantastic teachers at Callington Community College. I would also like to acknowledge Mrs. Suzanne Davis-Butler, and Mr. Matthew Hortop and Mrs. Simone Bremnar who all helped me to coordinate and plan my various displays for competing with my project. Mrs. Cath Roberts and Mr. Alan Yendell deserve to be thanked as well, due to their diligent work inside our Sixth Form and in making sure I have always had exactly what I need to succeed. Finally, I would like to acknowledge Professor David Parkinson and Rachel Delourme, and all those at Nuffield Foundation and Peninsula Medical School who helped me extensively with my research placement, and beyond into competitions and volunteering opportunities that have truly been once in a lifetime. I assure you all that your generosity will never be forgotten, and that I will do my utmost to continue to make Callington proud!

    Bibliography

    1. Glenn, T. D., & Talbot, W. S. (2013). Signals Regulating Myelination in Peripheral Nerves and the Schwann Cell Response to Injury. SciVerse ScienceDirect, 1041-1048.

    2. Parkinson, D. E. (2013). Plastic Fantastic: Schwann Cells and Repair of the Peripheral Nervous System. Stem Cell Translational Medicine, 1-6.

    3. Parkinson, D. E. (2017). Sox 2 expression in Schwann Cells Inhibits Myelination in vivo and induces influx of Macrophages to the Nerve. The Company of Biologists, 1-12.

    4. Sotelo, C. (2003). Viewing the Brain through the Master Hand of Cajal. Perspectives, 1-4.

    5. Swanson, L and Newman, E. (2017). The Beautiful Brain: The Drawings of Santiago Ramon y Cajal. Abrams Books, USA.

    6. Xu, N. e. (2016). Inhibition of YAP/TAZ Activity in Spinal Cord Suppresses Neuropathic Pain. Journal of Neuroscience 36, 10128 -0 10140.

    7. Lobato, R. (2007). Historical Vignette of Cajal’s Work ‘Degeneration and Regeneration of the Nervous System’ with a reflection of the author. Neurocirugia, 456-468.

    8.Nobel Prize Winners. (2014). Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906. Retrieved September 3, 2017, from https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/cajal-bio.html.

    9. Poitelon, Y. E. (2016). YAP and TAZ control peripheral myelination and the expression of laminin receptors in Schwann cells. Nature Neuroscience.

    Reviewers comment:

    This is not only exceptional molecular biology, but a beautifully written report. My favourite aspect was the acknowledgement that her water control would need to be run again. Dr Keith Hart, Cardiff University.